TEA-0301-IND

INDONESIAN

THEATRE

Javanese and Balinese

Music, Dance & Performance

university course

designed by

Zachàr Laskewicz

Delivered in 2003 at the

Taipei National University of the Arts

©NIGHTSHADES PRESS 2008

music-theatre-language ebooks

Noordstraat 1/3, 9000 Ghent (BELGIUM)

This ebook remains the original copyright of Zachàr Alexander LASKEWICZ who designed this course in 2003. If use is made of the contents of this work, please reference the work appropriately and inform the author at the following address :

zachar@nachtschimmen.eu

Reference Code :

Course 0301-IND

Correlating Webpage : http://www.nachtschimmen.eu/zachar/teacher/0301_IND.htm

Theatre & Drama Studies

Indonesian Theatre:

Javanese & Balinese music, dance and performance

Course Description:

This course is intended to provide students with a deeper understanding of the role theatre, music and dance have played and continue to play in Indonesia. Although the primary focus is on Javanese and Balinese culture, we also look at the current role played by the arts in contemporary Indonesia, which involves a wider picture than the history of Java and Bali alone; artists currently at work in important cultural centres and subsidised organisations based in Jakarta come from all over this wide and varied continent. The emphasis, however, remains on both a historical survey of theatre forms which spread down to Bali through Java in the Middle Ages and unique forms of ritual-based performing arts which are still performed today but which have emerged from a long and dynamic history.

Required Textbooks:

Manual One - Selected Readings for each lecture

Documentation on the structure of the unit

Timetable:

This course is given on a semester basis consisting of 15 major lectures. During the semester students are required to write a paper or give a presentation on one of the major topics presented in the documentation provided at the beginning of the semester. Other possible topics can be negotiated with the supervisor. The paper/presentation can be in English or Chinese depending on the ability of the student. Participation during the semester plays a significant role, but at the end of semester a short exam will help to determine the student's final mark.

Weekly Schedule:

The following set of lectures is given to students who are required to have completed a set of readings related to the topic. Lectures are informal in that questions can be asked and discussions are encouraged; many will include videos and other demonstrations such as audio recordings.

1 Introduction: history of Indonesia

2 East & West theoretical perspectives

3 Ancient Javanese/Balinese History: the holy significance of the kraton and its performances

4 Javanese & Balinese Hinduism: the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and their expression in Indonesian performance

5 The Heritage of the Ancient Javanese Language: the panji tales in Java and Bali

6 Javanese and Balinese Gamelan: a unique cultural tradition

7 Ancient forms of Javanese Theatre

8 Ancient forms of Balinese Theatre: Gambuh, Selonding (Bali Aga), Arja

9 Balinese Ritual Theatre: Topeng, Day Wayang, Temple Dances

10 The Wayang Kulit tradition in Java and Bali

11 Balinese Gong Kebyar tradition: a theatrical aesthetic

12 Javanese & Balinese Performance and the Indonesian State: contemporary Hindu realisations

13 Ludruk in contemporary Java

14 Political & Feminist Theatre in the Indonesia of Today

15 Revision of major forms of theatre, music & dance

Requirements:

Students are expected to attend all classes. If more than three classes are missed unannounced the students' grade could be affected. If, on the other hand, the student contacts the teacher by informing him on the beforehand, negotiation is possible. Forms of communication include post, email, personal discussion and via the telephone. Assessment is based on attendance, participation and an end of semester essay (in English) or presentation (Chinese or English). The paper has to be between 2000 and 3000 words long, or its equivalent in a presentation (half-an-hour lecture). The students negotiate the topic of the essay with the professor.

Evaluation:

Grades are determined as follows:

Attendance: 30%

Participation in classroom activities: 20%

Paper/Presentation: 50%

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURER'S NOTES: Lesson 1

P1-1

- Brief introduction to the course.

- Describe structure of the lessons.

- Readings will be provided and have to be prepared.

- In this course PREPARATION, COMMUNICATION, ATTENDANCE, PARTICIPATION are givens and students are expected to participate actively.

P1-2

- Make list of students names, and a ask them to make a brief description.

P1-3

- Go through course description with the students.

- describe the course assessment procedures.

P1-4

Define the following list:

Colonialism

'orientalisms

myth

'cultural myth'

myth-making machine

music-theatre / dance-theatre

Hinduism

Ramayana

Mahabharata.

Gamelan

Angklung

Gong Kebyar

Wayang Kulit

Wayang Wong

Colotomy

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURE NOTES: lecture 1 - introduction

Colonialism is a term used to describe the way cultures (such as Dutch culture in Indonesia and English culture in India) found colonies in a new country and take command of all aspects of cultural administration. Taiwan, for example, was colonised by both the Dutch and the Japanese. They also colonised Indonesia and lived off its fruits for more than a hundred years.

'Orientalisms' is a term invented by Said to refer to the sets of beliefs that exist in order for colonialism to take place. It justifies the colonial abuse of countries like Indonesia. The Dutch, for example, actually believed that the Javanese were not fit to run their own country and that it was therefore the duty of Holland to help them.

The following terms will also be discussed in relation to the readings you will have this week:

myth

'cultural myth'

myth-making machine

interculturality

self-reflexive interculturality

The following terms are important to know before you commence a course in Indonesian theatre:

music-theatre / dance-theatre

Hinduism

Ramayana

Mahabharata.

Gamelan

Angklung

Wayang Kulit

Wayang Wong

Colotomy

Drama and Theatre are terms which refer to quite different acts. Drama refers to the written form, i.e. the rules of discourse which a writer obeys to create a dramatic text. Theatre refers, in contrast, to what the director or the playwright and the director together do, with a group of actors, to bring a dramatic text to life on the stage. This course bases itself in drama, but discusses also its realisation as theatre.

Play and Performance are similar terms. A 'play' is the word used for a dramatic text, whereas as a 'performance' is what takes place on stage.

When looking at drama we refer to a number of key terms which you will need to be familiar with when writing about drama. Fill in the definitions as provided by the lecture:

ACT:

SCENE:

MONOLOGUE:

DIALOGUE:

KEY SPEECH:

'BEATS':

An 'ideal play' is a play which obeys all the dramatic rules accepted by a set of conventions which we have come to know as 'modern theatre' (which almost all of the plays we'll be looking at belong to). Fill in some of these conventions of the 'ideal play' below; looking for them in the dramatic texts in this course will help you understand better how western drama works.

Conventions of an ideal play include the following:

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

Topics for discussion: orientalisms and myth-making machines

Reading 1: SAID, Edward (1985) Orientalism, Penguin, Harmondworth.

1. Define the term 'orientalisms' with your own words.

2. Who 'invented' the orient? What does he mean by this?

3. What do you think about colonialism? Do you think colonialism by the Dutch

and the Japanese was justified?

4. The West regards China as part of the orient; Taiwan is an 'exotic' location.

What do you feel about this?

5. What was the ultimate purpose of creating the 'orient' as opposed to the

'occident'?

6. Why does Said make a distinction between 'pure' and 'political' knowledge?

7. What do you think the purpose is of creating the idea of an 'orientalism'?

Reading 2: LASKEWICZ, Zachar (2002) "Bali as Myth-Making Machine", University of Vienna, Austria.

1. What is a myth-making machine?

2. What are the consequences of realising a 'self-reflexive' form of

interculturality?

3. How do myth-making machines create myths, and why?

4. How is this significant in relation to the way we view Indonesian culture?

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURER'S NOTES: Lesson 2

Ancient Javanese/Balinese History & the Ramayana

Reading 1: SAID, Edward (1985) Orientalism, Penguin, Harmondworth.

1. Define the term 'orientalisms' with your own words.

2. Who 'invented' the orient? What does he mean by this?

3. What do you think about colonialism? Do you think colonialism by the Dutch

and the Japanese was justified?

4. The West regards China as part of the orient; Taiwan is an 'exotic' location.

What do you feel about this?

5. What was the ultimate purpose of creating the 'orient' as opposed to the

'occident'?

6. Why does Said make a distinction between 'pure' and 'political' knowledge?

7. What do you think the purpose is of creating the idea of an 'orientalism'?

Reading 2: LASKEWICZ, Zachar (2002) "Bali as Myth-Making Machine", University of Vienna, Austria.

1. What is a myth-making machine?

2. What are the consequences of realising a 'self-reflexive' form of

interculturality?

3. How do myth-making machines create myths, and why?

4. How is this significant in relation to the way we view Indonesian culture?

P2-1

- Contemporary Indonesia, and also readable back into its many varied folk arts, is a subtle blending of every culture that ever invaded it - Chinese, Indian, Melanesian, Portuguese, Polynesian, Arabian, English, Dutch and American.

- Indonesia's history is a story of wave after wave of migrations of peoples who either absorbed earlier arrives, killed them off, or pushed them into less fabourable regions such as the deep forests, high mountains or remote islands. This ongoing and unending process explains Indonesia's astounding etehnic diversity.

- Java was the one of the first places in the world to be inhabited by man (Homo Erectus skull discovered there in 1891).

- Neolithic peoples made huge bronze drums and chopping hoes, and they knew how to grow rice and to use bamboo pipes for irrigation and buffaloes for pulling ploughs.

- In Ancient Indonesia they lived in matriarchal societies under adat law. They had puppetry, music, pottery and other arts, and the subsisted primarily on rice.

- The ancient traditions, of which there were many, became diffused beneath the great cultural influence which was to come from India, although still on Bali and Java animistic traditions that predate the Hindu-Buddhist empires are present (particularly Bali: Bali Aga villages)

- The contact with India was probably made in the name of trade; first contact is noticeable thanks to inscriptions in the first centuries A.D.

- On Java, and also on Bali and Sumatra, Hindu and Buddhist oriented kingdoms developed, based on a feudal system (where the farmers were obiged to work the land for their kings). These people did the work for the monumental religious building work from the 8^th and 9^th century in Central-Java, for example the Prambanan and the Borobudur. The political centre came to exist later in East Java, where the Indian traditions were stronger woven with Indonesian ideas. It is here that the "Old Javanese Literature" (body of works) developed. Particularly, the Indian epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were transformed into tales which made sense to Indonesians, as is the accepted basis of the Hindu religion.

- Today we'll be looking at the story of the Ramayana and some of the major themes behind this story, in addition to mentioning some of the many forms it is realised in (although some will be concentrated on in individual lectures/demonstrations).

P1-2

- The old cosmological order of the Indonesians was extended thanks to Indian influences, so that spatiality was given a new meaning. In the place of familial relationships, this new societal/epistemological ordering of the world included the society as a whole. In this order, the central place for the gods was the holy mountain Meru (as it was Gunung Agung in Java). In turn, the kraton, the palace where the royal might begins, is the central point for the earthly kingdom. The wind directions form the basis for the classification of visible things: days, colours, metals, but also abstract principles, are associated with these ideas. People have to associated with these divisions to make sure that the godly powers will not turn against him. The 'refined etiquette' which is associated with the Javanese kingdom also developed during this period.

- Evidence of Natyasastra.

- The dance traditions associated with the kraton are of primary importance to us here, because of their influence on other arts, because of the way they have been moulded to different shapes

- Of the existence of a Hindu Javanese society, first associated in old Chinese sources thanks to Indonesian trade trips to China.

- In Java, Buddhuiism is alsmo surely only the religion of the kings and their close relations. Folk remained Hindu, or what is referred to as "Siwaism" (worship of the hindu god Shiwa).

- In India, both of these streams stood in contrast to one another; but on Java, just the opposite: they grew closer together more and more (Prambanan is a complex devoted to both religions).

- The area between Jogykarta and Surakarta in Central Java became the home of Siwaism, and it is probably with no coincidence this is where the cultural revolution took place that created the traditions we look at today.

- The actual Javaneese history description begins in the the 13^th century. Hayam Wuruk, who took the power from his mother in 1350, started the great Majapahit empire which is when Javanese culture developed in its most refined way.

- The kingdom included Central and East Java, madura, the islands East of Java, Sulawesi and surrounding islands, and also the Moloccus and Sumatra. In those days this was a stupendous empire.

- So important because of its relationship with Balinese history and even Balinese contemporary culture.

- Hayam Wuruks kraton would have functioned as the centre of the Hindu-Javanese universe. After his death, however, the empire died quickly. With the end of the Majapahit, around 1500, meant the end of the supremacy of the hindu kings. The Islam began to take an important place. Already in 1292 Marco Polo told of Islamic priests visiting Sumatra. From a Chinese source, we can see that in 1416 Islam was present in Java.

- A Century later, more and more 'kings' went over to Islam one by one and 'Sultamdoms' where in this way developed. It is interesting, though, to comment on the fact that Hindu-Buddhist stories, behaviour and rituals remained always a part of the same tradition.

- In the mid-14^th century, Gajah Mada of Java's Majapahit empire 'conquered' Bali, and East Javanese influences apread from the purely religious and cultural spheres into fine art, dancing, sculpture and architecture. When the empire fell in the 15^th century, under pressure from the miliary and economic invasion of Islam, there was a mass migration of the cream of Java's Majapahit scholars, dancers and rules to Bali. Priests took with them their sacred books and historical records, and on Bali they found refuge and developed the unique Bali Hinu customs and institutions.

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURE NOTES: lecture 2 - Javanese and Balinese history

Contemporary Indonesia is a combination of many folk arts stemming from a wide range of cultures, including Chinese, Indian, Melanesian, Portuguese, Polynesian, Arabian, English, Dutch and American. The primary cultural bloom, however, took place during the great Hindu-Buddhist empires which developed on Bali and Java during the European 'Middle-Ages'.

The first influence came from trade between India and Indonesia; first contact is noticeable thanks to inscriptions in the first centuries A.D. Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms began to be formed, which is interesting because in India Hinduism and Buddhism stood in contrast to one another. In Indonesia they grew together in a unique way.

Thanks to Indian traditions and the translation of Indian religious documents into Old Javanese, a new world order was developed which was based not on the family home of ancient Indonesia, but the kraton or kingdom which is such an important part of both Balinese and Javanese cultural history. Spatiality became an important metaphor; the top of the holy mountain Meru became the home of the gods just as the kraton became the centre for earthly culture. It is the combination of cultures and traditions, Old Javanese and Indian being the central but other cultures playing important roles, that the dance and music traditions developed which we associate with old Java and Bali.

The Majapahit empire was undoubtedly the cultural flowering which began (and almost ended) with the reign of the great Hayam Wuruk. After Wuruk's fall, Islamic influence began to grow, and all the great Hindu-Buddhist scholars fled to Bali where they founded the unique culture we recognise today which unites ancient Javanese and Hindu concepts into a Balinese form unlike any other culture in the world.

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

Topics for discussion: orientalisms and myth-making machines

PRIJONO (1982) Indonesia Menari, PN Balai Pustaka, Jakarta.

1. How does the Indonesian correlation between dance and religion relate to you own culture?

2. Are you aware of any performance forms which involve possession (of individuals by supernatural spirits)? Which are the major forms Prijono discusses which involve this type of expression?

3. There are dances in major central Javanese cities that involve the story of the Sultans rather than the Hindu-Buddhist stories. Which one does Prijono discuss?

4. Choose one of the dances which involves a 'narrative' and underline it for discussion with the group.

5. Prijono discusses performances which involve some type of miraculous event such as, for example, running on flames but not getting hurt. Find these forms and describe what you think their original purpose may have been.

6. Does Prijono discuss dances which are related to mating rituals, i.e. where men and women are given the opportunity to meet another and court? Are you aware of any correlates in your own culture?

7. In the Javanese kraton, do women perform men's dances? Why do you think this is so?

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURER'S NOTES: Lesson 2

Ancient Javanese/Balinese History & the Ramayana

PRIJONO (1982) Indonesia Menari, PN Balai Pustaka, Jakarta.

1. How does the Indonesian correlation between dance and religion relate to you own culture?

2. Are you aware of any performance forms which involve possession (of individuals by supernatural spirits)? Which are the major forms Prijono discusses which involve this type of expression?

3. There are dances in major central Javanese cities that involve the story of the Sultans rather than the Hindu-Buddhist stories. Which one does Prijono discuss?

4. Choose one of the dances which involves a 'narrative' and underline it for discussion with the group.

6. Does Prijono discuss dances which are related to mating rituals, i.e. where men and women are given the opportunity to meet another and court? Are you aware of any correlates in your own culture?

7. In the Javanese kraton, do women perform men's dances? Why do you think this is so?

P2-1

- The contact with India was probably made in the name of trade; first contact is noticeable thanks to inscriptions in the first centuries A.D.

- On Java, and also on Bali and Sumatra, Hindu and Buddhist oriented kingdoms developed, based on a feudal system (where the farmers were obliged to work the land for their kings). These people did the work for the monumental religious building work from the 8^th and 9^th century in Central-Java, for example the Prambanan and the Borobudur. The political centre came to exist later in East Java, where the Indian traditions were stronger woven with Indonesian ideas. It is here that the "Old Javanese Literature" (body of works) developed. Particularly, the Indian epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were transformed into tales which made sense to Indonesians, as is the accepted basis of the Hindu religion.

- Play Javanese musical fragment here

P1-2

- VALMIKI, no doubt a Brahman by brith, was responsible for collecting the songs and legends of Rama.

- The material in its simplest form, the story of the recovery of a ravished bride, is not unlike that of another great epic, the Iliad of Homer. It is actually probably that both epics go back to common legendary sources older than 1000 years B.C.

- Probablyat some time during the last centuries preceding Christ the current versions of Rama’s saga were taken up by the Brahman poet, and formed into ne stry with a clear and coherent plot.

- Important theme: two ideal societs, an ideal goed and an ideal evil. Valmii abstracts from human life an amost pure morality and an almost pure immorality. Poets and artists of ancient India and of Java who realized these works were practical sociologists, using the great power of their art deliberatuely to mould the developmentof human institutions and to lay down ideals for all classes of men.

- The Vedas may have belonged to the learned; iconic meaning, whereas Ramayana and the like translated into every possible vernacular and for the illiterate into theatre and dance; they were very much lessons.

- It is is the Ramayana that we find the chief account of the ideal Hindu system of Colour (caste). Castes are as follows: Brahmans (priests/philosophers); Kshatriyas, the ruling and mightly class; Vaishyas, traers and agriculturists and Shudras – servants of th other three. For each caste, Hindu theory recognizes an appropriate duty and morality.

- Over against this human world of the silver ageis drawn the sinful and inhuman world of the rakshasas, where greed, lust and violence and deceit replace generosity, self-restraint, gentleness and truth.

- Importance of animals to the story of Ramayana; perhaps leading back to ancient tales of animals

- HANUMAN: although a monkey, this character is of a different order. It is actually a common symbol of early Hinduism (chapels can be found dedicated to him). Energy and beauty of the qualities for which he stands. He is the Hindu ideal of the perfect servant; the subordinatoe whose glory is in his own inferiority.

- Rama stood against the wickedness of the rakshasas, particularly Ravana who constantly disturbed his kingdom. Rama was required to fight against him because of a holy arrangement. It was in one of these early journeys to important pilgrimages to destroy the evil influence of the Rakshasas that Rama made acquaintance with the beautiful Sita.

- Rama and Sita representing the purity of masculinity and femininity in ancient Hindu culture.

- Rama, because of his conquests and successes and his representation of good, he was chosen by his father to be king of the mythical land Adhoya where the work is set.

- The Land was expectant and happy with the choice of Rama as their new leader.

- Because of circumstances (evil new wife of the king Kaikeyi), however, that result in his evil brother half-brother Bharata being put on the throne, Rama is forced to dwell as a hermit in Dandaka forest for 14 years with dress of bark and matted hair; he is forced to leave his beloved Sita behind

- Sita follows Rama into exile, as does his brother Lakshman.

- The land of Ayodha fell into sorrow in Rama’s absence.

- Bharata saw how sad the kingdom was and therefore demanded Rama be searched for.

- Rama refused to return because he was bound by rules of his father and mother to live in the forest in exile; he tells Bharata to lead wisely.

- While in exile in the forest, they had many mighty battles against mythical beasts.

- Then hideous Rakshasi, sister of Ravana, came to try and seduce Rama, but was unsuccessful, and she wanted to murder Sita. For her efforts she ha her nose and ears cut off.

- Khara, younger brother of Ravana, was enraged, sent fourteen thousand rakshasas, terrible demons and shape-shifters. Rama sent Sita and Laksham into to a secret cave so he could fight alone.

- A dreadful battle was bought, and the gods on the side of Rama showered blossoms upon Rama. Ravana was deeply enraged. He decided to vanquish Rama by carrying Sita away.

- Twenty arms and ten heads had Ravana.

- A servant of Ravana disquised himself as a golden deer which attracted Sita and was chased by Rama. The magic deer led Rama away, and was killed by Rama, but a ruse was set up so that Laksham was drawn away from Sita and Sita was kidnapped. Ravana assumed the shape of a wandering yoqi and came towards Sita.

- Sita’s kidnapping was a sign to the world that the evil Ravana must die, so although Brahma’s were sad about Sita, they were happy to know that Ravana would finally be vanquished.

- Rama was advised to seek the help of the great monkey Sugriwa and the four other monkeys on the mountain of Rishyamukha. In trade to help Sugriwa overcome his evil brother Vali, Sugriwa agreed to help recover Sita.

- Sita was finally found in Lanka by monkey god Hanuman and was returnd to Rama. Monkey’s Sugriwa and Hanuman play a key role in the battle of the return of Sita.

- Rama is installed again in Adhoya, but Sita’s virtue is questioned. She has to undergo trials. Discuss thematic implications of this and choice of state over love.

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURE NOTES: lecture 3 – The Ramayana

Epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were translated from Sanskrit into Old Javanese during the great Hindu-Buddhist empires. They were, however, brought to the people in many different formats, like in India, including dance and music; hence their importance in understanding Indonesian traditional and contemporary theatre.

The Ramayana concerns the story of Rama the king and Sita the queen, who represented ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ in a pure sense. The story of the Ramayana is particularly important, however, because it presents the basic ideals important to Hinduism, particularly the notion of ‘caste’.

Animals also play an important role, and associations have been made between ancient animal stories and the Ramayana. Hanuman is perhaps the ideal Hindu representation of a good animal. A monkey god-servant, Hanuman is totally satisfied in his role as a servant and fulfils his goal in serving the King Rama in a heroic fashion. Here the caste system, where people are ‘born’ to be the servants of ‘Brahman’ and royalty, is represented in a typical fashion.

The story actually involves two ideal kingdoms: the ideal evil kingdom of the Ravanas and the ideal good kingdom of the mythical Indian city Adhoya, which involves the reign of many kings including at the end of the Ramayana, Rama himself.

The central part of the story, that part which is particularly important in Indonesian representations, involves the kidnapping of Sita from Rama by the evil demon Ravana. It also involves the great search Sita undertaken with the assistance of Sugriwa and Hanuman (and other monkeys) and finally her rescue (and subsequent trial). The final part of the story involves a king choosing love or his country.

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

Topics for discussion:

PRIJONO (1982) Indonesia Menari, PN Balai Pustaka, Jakarta.

1. How does the Indonesian correlation between dance and religion relate to you own culture?

2. Are you aware of any performance forms which involve possession (of individuals by supernatural spirits)? Which are the major forms Prijono discusses which involve this type of expression?

3. There are dances in major central Javanese cities that involve the story of the Sultans rather than the Hindu-Buddhist stories. Which one does Prijono discuss?

4. Choose one of the dances which involves a 'narrative' and underline it for discussion with the group.

6. Does Prijono discuss dances which are related to mating rituals, i.e. where men and women are given the opportunity to meet another and court? Are you aware of any correlates in your own culture?

7. In the Javanese kraton, do women perform men's dances? Why do you think this is so?

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURER'S NOTES: Lesson 4

The Mahabharata

PRIJONO (1982) Indonesia Menari, PN Balai Pustaka, Jakarta.

1. How does the Indonesian correlation between dance and religion relate to your own culture?

2. Are you aware of any performance forms which involve possession (of individuals by supernatural spirits)? Which are the major forms Prijono discusses which involve this type of expression?

3. There are dances in major central Javanese cities that involve the story of the Sultans rather than the Hindu-Buddhist stories. Which one does Prijono discuss?

4. Choose one of the dances which involves a 'narrative' and underline it for discussion with the group.

6. Does Prijono discuss dances which are related to mating rituals, i.e. where men and women are given the opportunity to meet another and court? Are you aware of any correlates in your own culture?

7. In the Javanese kraton, do women perform men's dances? Why do you think this is so?

[go through Becker reading on Javanese gamelan]

[go through Javanese Kraton reading]

P2-1

- The Mahabharata composed by poet Vyasa. It was written on palm leaves by Siwa’s eldest elephant sone, Ganesh (Ganesa).

- The story is of the chronicle of the Bharatas, descendants of the legendary King Kutu, a forebear of Santanu, and of the descendeants of the gods Wisnu and Brahma.

- The Mahabharata is a history that ends in civil war, in the tenth generation after Wisnu.

- Is indeed an ‘epic tale’ and was attractive to the Javanese because of its transcendental thematic material, its glorious battles and the fascinating stories within stories that complicate the complex whole.

- I. Begins with complex mystical tales that relate to the origins of Hindusim. The Santanu line begins with the rebirth of the Wasu brothers who were cursed to be born on earth because of some mischief in heaven. Thy asked the River Goddess Gangga (ganges) to be their mother and she accepted. Later she descended to earth and became the wife of King Santanu. Seven sons bron to Santanu and Gangga were drowned by the goddess immediately after birth – the Wasu brothers were cursed to be born on earth, bot to live there. Santanu, by the eighth son, implored his wife not to drown this child which she agreed to on the condition that she could return to heaven (as was in the arrangement). Prabhasa, a demi-god, was therefore born accursed to a life on earth. Santanu named his don Dewabrata.

- II. In his wanderings, King Santanu met the beautiful Satyawati who was born on earth in the belly of a fish. Before meeting King Santanu, she had bore a sone to the minstrel Palasara, descendant of Brahma and Wisnu. As a sign of gratitude to her having slept with him he took herhorrible fish odour away. The son, the poet Abiasa who actually recounts the tale, was taken away into forest by Palasara. Satyawati, in the meantime, agreed to marry King Santanu on condition that her own son ascend to the throne, a promise that Santanu could not fulfil without harming Dewabrata. Dewabrata on seeing his father’s confusion agreed to give up his right to marry, which after hesitation his father accepted. The father changed Dewabrata’s name to Bisma (Bima) and granted him the power to determine the moment of his own death. Santanu and Satyawai had a son called Wicitrawirya and when he grew up th father moved into th forest to become a hermit so his own second son could become king.

- III. Bisma took it onto himself to find the nw king a suitable queen. He went to the swayambara of the three daughters of the King of Banares (a contest where the princess would suit the most valiant husband). Bisma kidnapped the the three princesses, Amba, Ambika and Ambalika. The first two married Wicitrawirya, but the eldest, Amba, refused. She had intended to marry the king Salwa. Bisma agreed to send her back. Salwa, however, refused to accept the princess, and Amba (disgraced and in desperation) asked Bisma to marry her. Bisma, true to his resolve, refused, but Amba did not leave him alone, then Bisma by accident killed her and she cursed him and told him she would kill him in a later life.

- IV. Wicitrawirya died childless.Abiasa, Queen Satyawati’s first son, was then called frm the forst to live with the wives of hi deceased half-broher and to father his brother’s sons. He lived with Ambika, Ambalika and a slave girl for onemonth each and then left for the forest again. Nine months later the trhee women bore sons. Ambika’s son, Dasarata (Dritarastra) as blind, Ambalika’s son was called Pandu, and the slave girl’s son was Widura. The children were raised by Bisma.

- V. Because of Dasarata’s blindness, Pandu was made king. For his wives he chose Kind Basudewa’s sister Kunti and Salya’s sister Madri. Asa girl, Kunti had once obtained from a wandering hermit a magic spell to call any god down from heaven to make love to her and to receive a son. One day, before her marriage, she was lying in th son and she couldn’t resist trying it; the sun god Surya came down and on that same night her son Karna was rn. He wore a full suit of armour and earrings and according to Javanese lore was born from Knti’s ear. Kunti, in fear of disgrace, ut Karnain a basket, blessed him, and lethim drift down the river. Downstream he was found by the charioteer Adirata (King Aradea) and raised as his son.

- VI. One day, Pandu rode into the forest to hunt. There he happened to kil a doe and a stay as they were mating. The stag, bfore dying, cursed Pandu saying that he would not father hiw own children. He would drop dead at the first attempt to make love to his woen. After this Pandu and his wives chose to live in the forest and Dasarata became king, despite his blindness. In the forest Kunti told Pand abouther magic spell. Pandu was happy again and told her to use it. First Darma, the God of Justice was called down. From him was born Kunti’s son Yudistira, the righteous. Second came Bau, God of the Wind, and Kunti bore him Bima, the strong. Third was Indra, Lord of Rainand Thunder, His son was Arjuna, swift and sure. Now Pandu’s second wife, Madri was given use of the spell, and she called down th twin Aswin gods, the physicians of the gods. She bore twin sons, Nakula and Sadewa. These five sons of Pandu were called the Pandawas. While his sons grew up in the forest, Pandu forgot his curse. One day he tried to make love to Madri and he died instantly. Madri chose to join him on his funeral pyre. Kunti left the forest with her sons and went to Hastinapura where Dasarata reiged. Thre the were welcomed by Dasarata, Widura, and Bisma.

- VII. Meanwhile, Bisma had arranged Dasarata’s marrage to Gandari, daughter of the king of the mountain kingdom of Gandara. Gandari was led to the capital by her brothr Sangkuni. After an unusually long pregnancy Gandari gave birth to a ball of flesh. Abiasa was called in to solve the myster; he divided it into one hundred pieces and one smaller piece These parts were carefully uresed in jars with butter for a pierod of two years, and just after the birth of the Pandawa brothers, 100 sons and one dauthter were born to Dasarata and Gandari. The first son was Suyudana (Duriodana). The second day Dursasana was born and so on, til on the one hundred and first day the girl Dursilawati (Dusala) was born. On the same day the Suyudana was born, a servant girt gave birth to Dasarata’s son Yuyutsu. The sons of Dasarata and Gandari were called the Kaurawas.

- VIII. Th Pandawa and Kaurawa brothers were tagut the art of warfare by the brahmana Durna and his brother-in-law Krepa. […] Durna organized a festival in which the two sets of brothers could show their abilities to the public. At the end of demonstrated, an unknown stranger asked to be admitted. He repeated all the Pandawa’s feats and excelled at them: it was Karna, their elder half-brother, but nobody, not even Karna himself, knew his origin. To make him feel equal after being mocked for his low birth, Suyudana offered Karna his friendship and the Kingdom of Awangga (Angga) to make him equal.

- IX. The contest worsened the relations between the Pandawas and Kaurawas. Suyudana, the proudest of the Kaurawas, asked his father to banish te Pandawas. The Kaurawas tried to trap them in a deadly fire, but they managed to escape. During their escape Bima fell into a well and entered into the realm of the snames (Naga). There he married Nagagini, the daughter of the Snake God Antaboga. She bore him a son, Antasena, and then Bima ascended to earth and left his wife and son to stay with Antaboga. In the forest, Bima met his second wife, the giantess Arimbi. In love with Bima, she warned the Pandawas that her brother Arimba intended to kil them. After killing Arimba Bima finally married Arimbi who could take the shape of a beautiful woman. Their son, Gatot Kaca had the ability to fly and was stronger than any giant (in Java, this character is important while in India he is minor). After a whilethe Panawas left the forest to live in a small village called Ekacakra, wherethey killed a demon called Baka who exacting a heavy toll from the villagers.

- X. King Drupada, still childless except for daughter Srikandi, made a sacrifice to Siwa and asked for children. Frm his offering fire wer born his son, Drestajumena, destined to kill Drupada’s enemy Durna and his dauther, the dark-skinned Draupadi. Both were adults when they stepped out of the fire. While in hiding, Pandawa’s heard about Draupadi’s swayambara, and they decided to attend disquised as brahmana. Karna was successful in performing the task (stringing a bow) but was rejected. Arjuna was also successful but he disappeared before she could make up her mind. Draupadi became married to each of the brothers (in Java only Yudistira).

- XI. Unknown to them, the Pandawas had been followed to their hiding place by Draupadi’s brother Drestajumena and Kresna. The latter was personification of the god Wisnu and King of Dwarawati. Both were surprised to find the Pandawas safe and well (they were thought dead) and they were welcomed back to the capital. Kind Dasarata implored them to come back to Hastinapura.Dasatara gave them a kingdom of their own in the forest Khandawa, a forest they would have to cultivate and turn into a real kingdom. Here the built the wondrous and magical kingdom of Indraprasta.

- XII. Sayudana and Sangkuni, eager to know about the Pandawas’ progress, went to Idraprasta. They were insulted by the magic and majesty of this kingdom and became jealous. Sankuni conselledSuyudana to take revenge on Yuistira by plahing dice with him , with the kingdoms at stake. Sangkuni (good at the game) played for Suyudana. Yudistira, onc challenged, could not refuse, and the date for the competition was set to be held at Hastinapura. The Pandawas arrived at the palace and the game started, and Yudistira lost all his wealth and did not stop playing until he lost everything (including his brothers and Draupadi).

- XIII. Suyudana sent for Draupadi but she refused to go; when she was carried away by Dursasana tried to rip her clothes off she called n Kresna for divine assistance and he wrapped her in clothes as quickly as he could remove them. Finally, Bisma stoped Dursasana and and ing Dasarat set free the Pandawas and returned everything. Suyudana challenged Yudistira once more for one last throw; the loser would be banished for 12 years years and had to live among the people for the 13^th. The dice were thrown and Yudistira lost.

- XIV. Pandawas retured to the forest after saying goodbye to their mother to live away from the world of men for some time. Arjuna decided to live a life of ascetism and meditation to gain spiritual strength. During this period, he defeated the demon king Niwatakawaca and he met Siwa, who sent him to Indra’s heaven to meet his father; he spent several days in heaven which took up many earth years. After spending many years in the forest, the other brothers and Draupadi decied to climb the Himalayas to the mountain Kailasa. There they met Arjuna again. It was now the 13^th year and they would have to live among people. They had to decide where to live. Thy decided to live in Wirata, the kingdom of King Matswapati.

- XV. They spent the year at the court of Wirata, serving King Maswapati and his queen. They all impersonated characters with different names

- XVI. Towards the end of the 13^th year, Suyudana decided to steal Matswapati’s cattle for diversion. A second assault fell upon the unguarded palace. Arjuna drove Prince Utara’s chariot and went to fetch the Pandawa’s weapons from their hiding place. The Kaurawas were defeated, and the identity of tPandawa’s was no longer secret. This was the end of their last year in hiding. Matswapati welcomed them. Arjuna was married to his daughter Utari (although she marries Arjuna’s son Abimanyu in the Javanese version much later).

- XVII Later, Dasarat suggested that they take back their kingdom Indraprasta, but Suyudana furiously intervened, seconded by Karna. War was imminent. Both asked for Kresna’s help. He offered them a deal; choose himself or his solders. Suyudana chose th soldiers. Arjuna imprlored Kresna to go to Hastinapura as his envoy and to seek a peaceful solution. Kresna went, accompanied by a deputation of the gods. The Kaurawas refused to return half the kingdom to the Pandawas. Dursasana attempted to waylay Kresna, but was killed by a pointed discus (Cakra). Karna also refused to make peace. A date and palce for the final battl were set. It was said that that place was specialy plowed for the purpose of the Bharatayuda, the war of the Bharatas.

- XVIII. The Pandawa armies were as numerous as the Kaurawas. On th first day of the battle, the Kaurawas army was led by Bisma. During the first day of the battle, Bisma wrought havoc in the Pandawa army. Matswapati was slain when he tried to fight Bisma. Kresna, as an incarnation of the god Wisnu, was not supposed to participate in the fighting, but he got so angry at Bisma that almost threw his Cakra.

- XIX. On the second day, after Bisma had once again scattered the Pandawa armies, Bisma was fatally wounded, although as he could choose his own death he chose to watch the battle to its end and soldiers from both armies were sent to protect him from further harm.

- XX. The third day of battle.

- XXI. Fourth day; battle between Arjuna and Karna. Karna was finally vanquished.

- XXII. Fifth day. Salya was appointed general of the Kaurawa army. Sankuni was killed by Nakula and Sadew. Many men were killed by Bima and Drestajumena. Suyudana gave up and fled into the forest.

- XXIII. Suyudana hid miseln in a lake to recover from his wounds. Aswatama, Krepa and Kartamarma found him and implored him to return. Suyudana longed for the defeat of a single Pandawa and didn’t care about his kingdom anymore. Suyudana finally fought Bima but was defeated and he died. Dasarata was ful of grief for his favorite sone and Aswatama vowed to kill all the Pandawas.

- XXIV. The Pandawas decided to spend the night outside the campe. Aswatama secretly scaled the wall s of the Pandawa cam and killed everybody there, but luckily the Pandawas themselves were not among them.

- XXV. Kind Dasarat mounred the los of his sons. He decided to visit the battlefield where he met the Pandawas who were building funeral pyres for their dead. He embraced them and attempted to seal a peace after embracing a statue with such strength (that had been placed in Bima-the man who had killed his son-in from of him by Kresna). Through this his wrath was spent and wept with them for the losses of the terrible war.

- XXVI. Yudistira coud not rejoice his victory. Finally Bima put him into a magic sleep thatcured his woe (he stopped cursing people who came near him). When e woke th next day, the Pandawas went to the capital, Hastinapure, where Dasarata abdicated and made Yudistira king. Arjuna and Kresna went to their former capital Indraprasta. In Hastinapura, Utari bore Arjuna’s son Parikesit. Great festivities followed. Some time after Dasarata went into he forest to live as a hermit. Queen Gandar, Widura, Kuniti and Sanjaya followed him. Later they rejoined the Pandawa’s and traveled to the Himalayas, leaving he kingdom to Parimesit. On their way to the mountain of the gods, Meru, they all died and found a place in heaven. Dasarata and his fellow hermits died ina forest fire and also went to heaven. Kresna finally had fulfilled his purpose on earth. His death was predestine and his finamily, who had no right of existence without Kresna, also met their fate. Dwarawati was abandoned and overrun by the sea. Kresna’s spirit ascended to heaven and became one with Wisnu.
Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURE NOTES: lecture 4 – The Mahabharata

The story of the Mahabharata is an epic in every sense. It has something for everyone; romance, battles, gambling, sex and murder. It is filled with valiant princes and evil monsters, and is a very complex whole. In these lecture notes we’ll be taking a look at some of the key moments.

The story itself is the chronicle of the Bharatas,descendants of the legendary King Kutu, descendants of the Hindu gods Wisnu (Vishnu) and Brahma. It is supposedly written by one of its characters, the poet Abiasa. It is a long family history that ends in civil war, in the tenth generation after Wisnu.

I. Story begins with the river goddess Gangga who marries King Santanu and then murders their children. Santanu begs her to spare the eighth child, Prabhasa. Prabhasa is a demi-god cursed to one life on earth. Santanu calls his child Dewabrata.

II. Santanu later met the beautiful Satyawati (born on earth in the belly of a fish). She would only marry him on the condition that there son would ascend to the throne. Dewabrata’s name was changed by Santanu into Bisma and their son Wicitrawirya ascended to the throne.

III. Bisma took it onto himself to find the new king a suitable queen. He went to the swayambara of the three daughters of the King of Banares. Bisma kidnapped the three princesses, Amba, Ambika and Ambalika. The first two married Wicitrawirya, but the eldest, Amba, refused.

IV. Wicitrawirya died childless.Abiasa, Queen Satyawati’s first son, was then called from the forest to live with the wives of his deceased half-brother and to father his brother’s sons. He lived with Ambika, Ambalika and a slave girl for one month each and then left for the forest again. Nine months later the three women bore sons. Ambika’s son, Dasarata was blind, Ambalika’s son was called Pandu, and the slave girl’s son was Widura. The children were raised by Bisma.

V. Because of Dasarata’s blindness, Pandu was made king. For his wives he chose Basudewa’s sister Kunti and Salya’s sister Madri. As a girl, Kunti had once obtained from a wandering hermit a magic spell to call any god down from heaven to make love to her and to receive a son. One day, before her marriage, she was lying in the son and she couldn’t resist trying it; the sun god Surya came down and on that same night her son Karna was born. In fear of disgrace, she put Karna in a basket, blessed him, and let him drift down the river. Downstream he was found by the charioteer Adirata (King Aradea) and raised him as his son.

VI. One day, Pandu rode into the forest to hunt. There he happened to kill a doe and a stay as they were mating. The stag, bfore dying, cursed Pandu saying that he would not father his own children. He would drop dead at the first attempt to make love to his women. After this Pandu and his wives chose to live in the forest and Dasarata became king, despite his blindness. In the forest Kunti told Pandu abouther magic spell. Pandu was happy again and told her to use it. First Darma, the God of Justice was called down. From him was born Kunti’s son Yudistira, the righteous. Second came the God of the Wind, and Kunti bore him Bima, the strong. Third was Indra, Lord of Rain and Thunder. His son was Arjuna, swift and sure. Now Pandu’s second wife, Madri was given use of the spell, and she called down the twin Aswin gods, the physicians of the gods. She bore twin sons, Nakula and Sadewa. These five sons of Pandu were called the Pandawas. While his sons grew up in the forest, Pandu forgot his curse. One day he tried to make love to Madri and he died instantly. Madri chose to join him on his funeral pyre. Kunti left the forest with her sons and went to Hastinapura where Dasarata reiged. There they were welcomed by Dasarata, Widura, and Bisma.

VII. Meanwhile, Bisma had arranged Dasarata’s marrage to Gandari, daughter of the king of the mountain kingdom of Gandara. Gandari was led to the capital by her brother Sangkuni. After an unusually long pregnancy Gandari gave birth to a ball of flesh. Abiasa was called in to solve the mystery; he divided it into one hundred pieces and one smaller piece These parts were carefully uresed in jars with butter for a period of two years, and just after the birth of the Pandawa brothers, 100 sons and one daughters were born to Dasarata and Gandari. The first son was Suyudana (Duriodana). Dursasana was then born and so on, till on the one hundred and first day the girl Dursilawati (Dusala) was born. On the same day the Suyudana was born, a servant girt gave birth to Dasarata’s son Yuyutsu. The sons of Dasarata and Gandari were called the Kaurawas.

VIII. The Pandawa and Kaurawa brothers were taught the art of warfare by the brahmana Durna and his brother-in-law Krepa.

IX. The contest worsened the relations between the Pandawas and Kaurawas. Suyudana, the proudest of the Kaurawas, asked his father to banish the Pandawas. The Kaurawas tried to trap them in a deadly fire, but they managed to escape. During their escape Bima fell into a well and entered into the realm of the snakes (Naga). There he married Nagagini, the daughter of the Snake God Antaboga. She bore him a son, Antasena, and then Bima ascended to earth and left his wife and son. In the forest, Bima met his second wife, the giantess Arimbi. In love with Bima, she warned the Pandawas that her brother Arimba intended to kill them. After killing Arimba Bima finally married Arimbi who could take the shape of a beautiful woman. Their son, Gatot Kaca had the ability to fly and was stronger than any giant.

X. King Drupada, of a minor kingom, was still childless except for daughter Srikandi. He made a sacrifice to Siwa and asked for children. From his offering fire were born his son, Drestajumena, destined to kill Drupada’s enemy Durna and his daughter, the dark-skinned Draupadi. Both were adults when they stepped out of the fire. While in hiding, the Pandawas heard about Draupadi’s swayambara, and they decided to attend disquised as brahmana. Karna was successful in performing the task (stringing a bow) but was rejected. Arjuna was also successful but he disappeared before she could make up her mind. Draupadi became married to each of the brothers (in Java only Yudistira).

XI. The Pandawas had been followed to their hiding place by Draupadi’s brother Drestajumena and Kresna. The latter was personification of the god Wisnu and King of Dwarawati. Both were surprised to find the Pandawas safe and well (they were thought dead) and they were welcomed back to the capital. Kind Dasarata implored them to come back to Hastinapura. Dasatara gave them a kingdom of their own in the forest Khandawa, a forest they would have to cultivate and turn into a real kingdom. Here the built the wondrous and magical kingdom of Indraprasta.

XII. Sayudana and Sangkuni, eager to know about the Pandawas’ progress, went to Indraprasta. They were insulted by the magic and majesty of this kingdom and became jealous. Sangkuni conselled Suyudana to take revenge on Yuistira by playing dice with him . Yudistira lost all his wealth and did not stop playing until he lost everything (including his brothers and Draupadi).

XIII. Suyudana sent for Draupadi but she refused to go. Finally, Bisma stoped Dursasana, set free the Pandawas and returned everything. Suyudana challenged Yudistira once more for one last throw; the loser would be banished for 12 years years and had to live among the people for the 13^th. The dice were thrown and Yudistira lost.

XIV. The Pandawas returned to the forest. Arjuna decided to live a life of ascetism and meditation to gain spiritual strength. After spending many years in the forest, the other brothers and Draupadi decided to climb the Himalayas to the mountain Kailasa. There they met Arjuna again. It was now the 13^th year and they would have to live among people. They decided to live in Wirata, the kingdom of King Matswapati.

XV. They spent the year at the court of Wirata, serving King Maswapati and his queen. They all impersonated characters with different names.

XVI. Towards the end of the 13^th year, Suyudana decided to steal Matswapati’s cattle for diversion. A second assault fell upon the unguarded palace. Arjuna drove Prince Utara’s chariot and went to fetch the Pandawa’s weapons from their hiding place. The Kaurawas were defeated, and the identity of the Pandawa’s was no longer secret. This was the end of their last year in hiding. Matswapati welcomed them. Arjuna was married to his daughter Utari.

XVII. Later, Dasarata suggested that they take back their kingdom Indraprasta, but Suyudana furiously intervened, seconded by Karna. War was imminent. Both asked for Kresna’s help. He offered them a deal; choose himself or his solders. Suyudana chose teh soldiers. Arjuna implored Kresna to go to Hastinapura as his envoy and to seek a peaceful solution. Kresna went, accompanied by a deputation of the gods. The Kaurawas refused to return half the kingdom to the Pandawas. Dursasana attempted to waylay Kresna, but was killed by a pointed discus (Cakra). Karna also refused to make peace. A date and place for the final battle were set. It was said that that place was specially plowed for the purpose of the Bharatayuda, the war of the Bharatas.

XVIII. The Pandawa armies were as numerous as the Kaurawas. On the first day of the battle, the Kaurawas army was led by Bisma. DBisma wrought havoc in the Pandawa army. Matswapati was slain when he tried to fight Bisma. Kresna, as an incarnation of the god Wisnu, was not supposed to participate in the fighting, but he got so angry at Bisma that he almost threw his Cakra.

XIX. On the second day, after Bisma had once again scattered the Pandawa armies, Bisma was fatally wounded, although as he could choose his own death he chose to watch the battle to its end and soldiers from both armies were sent to protect him from further harm.

XX. The third day of battle.

XXI. Fourth day; battle between Arjuna and Karna. Karna was finally vanquished.

XXII. Fifth day. Salya was appointed general of the Kaurawa army. Sankuni was killed by Nakula and Sadew. Many men were killed by Bima and Drestajumena. Suyudana gave up and fled into the forest.

XXIII. Suyudana hid himself in a lake to recover from his wounds. Aswatama, Krepa and Kartamarma found him and implored him to return. Suyudana longed for the defeat of a single Pandawa and didn’t care about his kingdom anymore. Suyudana finally fought Bima but was defeated and he died. Dasarata was full of grief for his favourite son and Aswatama vowed to kill all the Pandawas.

XXIV. The Pandawas decided to spend the night outside the camp. Aswatama secretly scaled the wall s of the Pandawa cam and killed everybody there, but luckily the Pandawas themselves were not among them.

XXV. Kind Dasarata mourned the loss of his sons. He decided to visit the battlefield where he met the Pandawas who were building funeral pyres for their dead. He embraced them and attempted to seal a peace after embracing a statue with such strength. His wrath was spent and he wept with them for the losses of the terrible war.

XXVI. Yudistira coud not rejoice his victory. Finally Bima put him into a magic sleep that cured his woe. When he woke the next day, the Pandawas went to the capital, Hastinapura, where Dasarata abdicated and made Yudistira king. Arjuna and Kresna went to their former capital Indraprasta. In Hastinapura, Utari bore Arjuna’s son Parikesit. Great festivities followed. Some time after Dasarata went into the forest to live as a hermit. Queen Gandari, Widura, Kunti and Sanjaya followed him. Later they rejoined the Pandawa’s and traveled to the Himalayas, leaving the kingdom to Parikesit. On their way to the mountain of the gods, Meru, they all died and found a place in heaven. Dasarata and his fellow hermits died in a forest fire and also went to heaven. Kresna finally had fulfilled his purpose on earth. His death was predestined and his family, who had no right of existence without Kresna, also met their fate. Kresna’s spirit ascended to heaven and became one with Wisnu.

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

Topics for discussion 4: Kraton & Folk Performance

SOEMARDJAN, Selo (1982) The Kraton in Javanese Social Structure

1. What is literal meaning of the word kraton? What does it actually refer to?

2. What is the symbolic meaning of this term?

3. What is the meaning of the term sakti? How is it applied in Java?

4. What does sakti mandra guna mean? What type of person do you have to be?

5. Does there exist anywhere else in Asia such a system of divinification of

individuals?

6. Does the Javanese king exist in the world of the gods or man or both?

7. What does the term sabda padita ratu mean?

8. What are pusakas? Are you aware of items in your own culture which could belong to this category?

9. Are there any rules in the marital system which you find unusual?

10. What is an abdidalem

Folk Characters and FolkArt

1. What do you think the difference is between Javanese folk art and works composed for the kraton?

2. Do you think Wayang Golek is folk art or ‘high art’ of the kraton? What about Wayang Kulit?

3. Do you think the panakawan belong to ‘high art’ or folk art? Do they perhaps bridge the gap between the two worlds? What is your opinion?

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

Topics for discussion 4: the kraton and folk art

Kraton reading

1. How does the Indonesian correlation between dance and religion relate to you own culture?

2. Are you aware of any performance forms which involve possession (of individuals by supernatural spirits)? Which are the major forms Prijono discusses which involve this type of expression?

3. There are dances in major central Javanese cities that involve the story of the Sultans rather than the Hindu-Buddhist stories. Which one does Prijono discuss?

4. Choose one of the dances which involves a 'narrative' and underline it for discussion with the group.

6. Does Prijono discuss dances which are related to mating rituals, i.e. where men and women are given the opportunity to meet another and court? Are you aware of any correlates in your own culture?

7. In the Javanese kraton, do women perform men's dances? Why do you think this is so?

Pawakan reading

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURER'S NOTES: Lesson 5

Javanese & Balinese Gamelan

P1 – Discussion of last weeks readings

SOEMARDJAN, Selo (1982) The Kraton in Javanese Social Structure

1. What is literal meaning of the word kraton? What does it actually refer to?

2. What is the symbolic meaning of this term?

3. What is the meaning of the term sakti? How is it applied in Java?

4. What does sakti mandra guna mean? What type of person do you have to be?

5. Does there exist anywhere else in Asia such a system of divinification of

individuals?

6. Does the Javanese king exist in the world of the gods or man or both?

11. What does the term sabda padita ratu mean?

12. What are pusakas? Are you aware of items in your own culture which could belong to this category?

13. Are there any rules in the marital system which you find unusual?

14. What is an abdidalem

Folk Characters and FolkArt

4. What do you think the difference is between Javanese folk art and works composed for the kraton?

5. Do you think Wayang Golek is folk art or ‘high art’ of the kraton? What about Wayang Kulit?

6. Do you think the panakawan belong to ‘high art’ or folk art? Do they perhaps bridge the gap between the two worlds? What is your opinion?

P2 – Lecture

1 – tari jawa video [show video]

2 – lecture on Balinese and Javanese gamelan

- Javanese and Balinese gamelan are unique instrumental ensembles. The term ‘gamelan’ refers to both the ensemble and the set of techniques which relate to how the music ensemble is played. Comparable systems can be found in Malaysia and to a lesser extent in Thailand, although they don’t appear to have developed to the extent of complexity of Java and Bali.

- The term ‘colotomy’ has been invented by ethnomusicologists to refer to the complex systems of gongs and inverted kettle pots which always result in the largest gong (gong agung) leading to a return and a repetition of the core melody.

- It is thought that there is a connection between the repetitious nature of the gong cycles and the Hindu cyclical nature of time. It has to be said, however, that in India there is no system of percussion instruments with colotomous cycles comparable to the system in Indonesia.

- We will start with Javanese gamelan which undoubtedly forms the origin of this musical form. Javanese gamelan sounds like a complex polyphony of elements which seem to have nothing to do with one another; voice, instruments and dancers appear to work independently of one another in a type of freedom although they are controlled rhythmically by a kendang player who plays a Javanese two-sided drum (kendang)l

- The independence of the parts is in fact part illusion and part a living fact of the music. Western music demands a different listening technique dependent on the rigidity the performers play with one another and are often dependent on a single controlling figure. Javanese music, in contrast, differs in that the kendang player provides the beat and the often gradual speed changes, which give the players relative freedom as to when they change their playing techniques dependent on certain foundational traditions rather than strict rules.

- Melodies usually begin with a ‘buka’, an opening, that is a shared melodic sequence all performers recognize.

- The accent is on the second beat which produces a melodic sequence that leads towards the gong which brings the melody continually back to the first beat.

- These ‘rules’ can change from region to region, but are based around generally known melodic sequences divided into groups of four notes known as balungan. They are generally set out as follows, the gong and kenong falling on specific notes (the final note always leading to the first note of the melody).

6532 6532

3265 3265

6532 6532

- This melodic sequence is played on instruments known as saron, whereas other instruments decorate this sequence according to particular foundational rules which the instrumentalists apply depending on the speed of the melody. These changes in speed which leads to musical change is known as irama-developments; the music moves from an initial basic speed to second, third and sometimes even fourth irama where the complexity of the developments around the core melody become more complex. Eventually the original melody is so slow that it becomes inaudible in the development.

- The nature and age of the slendro and pelog scales.

- The fact that 2 gamelan in both Javanese and Balinese scales are rarely alike; dependent on gamelan makers and traditions or the region.

- In more contemporary development, newer music, the music begins with a ‘buka’ [opening sequence] and then slows down in a first repetition of the melody so that it moves to something complex sounding almost immediately; the original melody on which the work is based becomes immediately lost in a complex instrumental polyphony unlike any other. Special listening skills are required to enjoy this music.

- Javanese and Balinese music are incomparable in many ways. Although they share common origins, they have developed differently, particularly in the twentieth century. Balinese music changed radically around the turn of the century and we’ll be spending time looking at these radical developments in another lecture. This development is known as the ‘Gong Kebyar’ tradition.

- Balinese music certainly developed its tradition from the Javanese colotomic gong cycle, and the fact that they shared a cultural heritage undoubtedly affected the music’s development.

- Mention the Majapahit connection and when the Javanese scholars moved between Java and Bali which formed part of the same nation.

- Earliest form of Balinese music known as gambuh. Describe the tradition. How it continues to influence Balinese music.

- Later form, undoubtedly influenced by the Majapahit empire, was the Gong Gede tradition which was developed for the aristocracy. Size of the instruments and the nature of the music, the melodies of which were known as lelambetan.

- The semar pegulingan music which developed during this time as well, music played outside the bedroom of the prince. Seven tone scale similar to Javanese pelog but in its own way unique and particularly Balinese. In contemporary (very recent) music new seven-tone gamelan are being brought back into use which will be described in later lectures.

- The Balinese use a scale based note on numbers but vowel sounds: ding, dong, deng etc. Melodies are always remembered orally rather than being notated as has become the tradition in Java.

- It is considered unladylike for women to play gamelan in both Java and Bali, but in both places, especially Bali, women players are beginning to cm together (although they often face conservative opposition).

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURE NOTES: lecture 5 – Javanese & Balinese Gamelan

The Javanese and Balinese gamelan are unique musical orchestras. Their particular style of music-making cannot be found in any other places, although there are instrumental groups that are similar in Malaysia and to a lesser extent in Thailand.

The following list of words and concepts are important for understanding Javanese and Balinese gamelan music. Place a definition next to the terms as they are defined in the lecture:

COLOTOMY:

IRAMA:

SLENDRO:

PELOG:

BALUNGAN:

GONG AGUNG:

KENONG:

KENDANG:

SARON:

BUKA:

GONG GAMBUH:

GONG GEDE:

SEMAR PEGULINGAN:

LELAMBETAN:

In more contemporary development, the music makes an almost immediate irama change into second irama. The original melody on which the work is based becomes immediately lost in a complex instrumental polyphony unlike any other. Special listening skills are required to enjoy this music.

Javanese and Balinese music are incomparable in many ways. Although they share common origins, they have developed differently, particularly in the twentieth century. Balinese music changed radically around the turn of the century and we’ll be spending time looking at these radical developments in another lecture. This development is known as the ‘Gong Kebyar’ tradition.

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

Topics for discussion 5: Javanese Cultural Representation

LINDSAY, Jennifer Javanese Gamelan

“Gamelan in Javanese Society”

1. According to Lindsay, is gamelan music seen apart from other art forms? Are there any musical forms in your culture which can’t be abstracted from other forms of art?

2. Is the singing style recent or ancient?

3. On page 43 Lindsay discusses major contrasts between Javanese and Western music. Describe this difference in your own words.

4. What is the role of women in traditional Javanese gamelan music? Is it different today to what it used to be?

5. Lindsay describes a type of ‘street music’. Are you aware of an comparable forms in your culture?

6. Name the two major Javanese sultanates that existed in the 18^th century.

7. What are the possibilities for learning Javanese gamelan today? What does Lindsay hope happens in the future?

Fox, “Panawakan in the Folk Tradition of Java”

1. What do you think the panawakan symbolize in Javanese drama?

2. They are described as being ‘down to earth’. What do you think this means?

3. They are also described as being ‘divine by nature”. What do you think this says about these curious characters?

4. Who is the most highly regarded personage in Javanese Wayang Kulit? Why?

5. When do these characters play an erotic or titillating role? What sort of symbolism is used? Are you aware of any similar type of stimulation in your own theatre traditions?

6. What is the difference between Wayang Kulit and Wayang Golek?

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURER'S NOTES: Lesson 5

Javanese & Balinese Gamelan

LINDSAY, Jennifer Javanese Gamelan

“Gamelan in Javanese Society”

8. According to Lindsay, is gamelan music seen apart from other art forms? Are there any musical forms in your culture which can’t be abstracted from other forms of art?

9. Is the singing style recent or ancient?

10. On page 43 Lindsay discusses major contrasts between Javanese and Western music. Describe this difference in your own words.

11. What is the role of women in traditional Javanese gamelan music? Is it different today to what it used to be?

12. Lindsay describes a type of ‘street music’. Are you aware of an comparable forms in your culture.

13. Name the two major Javanese sultanates that existed in the 18^th century.

14. What are the possibilities for learning Javanese gamelan today? What does Lindsay hope happens in the future?

Fox, “Panawakan in the Folk Tradition of Java”

7. What do you think the panawakan symbolize in Javanese drama?

8. They are described as being ‘down to earth’. What do you think this means?

9. They are also described as being ‘divine by nature”. What do you think this says about these curious characters?

10. Who is the most highly regarded personage in Javanese Wayang Kulit? Why?

11. When do these characters play an erotic or titillating role? What sort of symbolism is used? Are you aware of any similar type of stimulation in your own theatre traditions?

12. What is the difference between Wayang Kulit and Wayang Golek?

P2 – Lecture

- Javanese Wayang Kulit is an exceptionally popular form of performing arts in Java and Bali. It has been enormously influential to other forms of art that came after it, and it still retains its popularity.

- The word Wayang means ‘shadow’ or ‘ghost’.

- A performance takes typically up to 24 hours. Performers sit back and enjoy the pieces they like; comparable to European opera traditions.

- In Javanese Wayang Kulit translation is an important issue; the audience already know the story and so don’t usually require ‘translation’; the original text itself has iconic meaning.

- Wayang Kulit in Java is used for both entertainment and for rituals such as circumcision.

- The Javanese Wayang Kulit orchestra is accompanied by a complete gamelan; this can comprise of up to 70 or 80 instruments.

- The dalang is required to be familiar with different types of language, such as Old Javanese and contemporary Javanese in addition to the rules dividing the class links. Old Javanese is referred to as Kawi and could be compared to Shakespearean English for an English audience; it is difficult to understand but one can get a general idea.

- Wayang performances are staged when a transitional event occurs in the life of a family (birthday, wedding or important religious occasion), or as a ritual entertainnt during family feasts. Coming of age (puberty), circumcision, a promotion in rank, even the building of a new swimming pool could be reason for a performance.

- Wayang Kulit in Java still plays an educational role, although not to the extent of the Balinese corresponding form. It teaches the meaning and purpose, as well as the contradictions and anomalies, of modern life.

- These days even government policies are explained ‘metaphorically’ through the Wayang Kulit tradition, not only by the puppetmasters, but also in newspaper editorials and even in government statements. [explain how this works]

- The dalang (puppeteer) is the playwright, producer, principal narrator, conductor and director of this shadow world.

- He is an expert in language and highly skilled in the techniques of ventriloquism.

- Some dalang even carve their own puppets, maintaining a cast of as much as 200 which are kept in a katok (wooden box).

- He must be familiar with all levels of speech according to the dramatis personae, modulating his voice and employing up to nine tonal and pitch variations to suit each puppet’s temperament.

- The dalang has a highly developed dramatic sense, and his chants are beautiful and captivating to hear.

- He also needs to be intimately versed in history (including complex royal genealogies), music (melodies, modes, phrases and songs), recitation (both gamelan and spoken), eloquence (an extempore poet creating a warm or terrifying atmosphere) and possess a familiarity with metaphysics, spiritual knowledge and perfection of the soul. Travelling from village to village and city tocity, he has as man fans as a film star.

- The puppets themselves are handcrafted out of buffalo or goat parchment. The arms swivel in two places.

- There are many different types of Wayang depending on the position in Indonesia, suchas the version in Palembang which uses its own language (a dialect of Malaysian).

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURE NOTES: lecture 5 – Javanese Wayang Kulit

Javanese Wayang Kulit is an exceptionally popular form of performing arts in Java and Bali.

The word Wayang means ‘shadow’ or ‘ghost’, whereas the work kulit refers to the puppets themselves.

A performance can take up to 24 hours. The way the audience interact with the performance, however, is very different to the western traditions.

In Javanese Wayang Kulit the dalang (puppeteer) speaks in ‘kawi’ (Old Javanese) and sometimes other ancient languages. Translation is not necessary because the audience already knows the story, and can understand some of the text.

Wayang Kulit in Java is used for ‘rites of passage’ celebrations such as puberty, circumcision, weddings and other important family events.

It is so popular that the idiom is used also by the government to communicate metaphorically information to the Indonesian people (through performance or in written forms). Even casual social events can be a good reason to put on a performance.

Stories in Wayang Kulit come primarily from the Ancient Hindu epic The Mahabharata.

Wayang Kulit is primarily educational in that it teaches the meaning and purpose, as well as the difficulties of modern life.

The dalang has to have an enormous knowledge of both physical, metaphysical and political matters to be able to make the performance successful.

He is an expert in language and the skills of ventriloquism and is also the playwright, producer, principal narrator, conductor and director of the show. Some dalang even carve their own puppets.

The puppets themselves are made from buffalo or goat parchment, and are sometimes constructed by the dalang himself.

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

Topics for discussion 6: Javanese Wayang Kulit

BOEDIARDJO “Wayang: a Reflection of the Aspirations of the Javanese”

1. In your culture do you think a puppet tradition could have the same impact on its audience as it did in Java in the eleventh century?

2. Why did the Javanese consider Wayang Kulit such an important tradition? Do you think that is still true today from what you have read?

3. On page 99 the author discusses the role Wayang Kulit still plays in the Java. Which of these do you consider to be the most unique and why?

4. Do the Javanese still believe in the traditions supporting the Wayang Kulit theatre form? Demonstrate an example of your answer from the text itself.

5. What does the term ‘satria’ refer to in the context of this article? Why do you think this is significant?

6. Is the character ‘Durna’ from the Mahabharata the same or different to the character in the Indian version of the story? Demonstrate this by finding an example in the text.

7. On page 109 what is the function of the penawakan described as being?

8. How is ‘allah’ (Islamic Godhead) represented in Wayang reality?

9. Demonstrate in the article a description of ways Wayang Kulit metaphors are used to explain contemporary issues.

KEELER, Ward “On Javanese Interpretation: a scene from a Wayang”

1. Why do you that the Javanese watch television without having to have direct translations? How does this relate to the Wayang tradition?

2. Read the translation and try to find something unusual about the language use.

Theatre & Drama Studies

Taipei National University of the Arts

Indonesian Theatre

LECTURER'S NOTES: Lesson 7

Javanese & Balinese Gamelan

BOEDIARDJO “Wayang: a Reflection of the Aspirations of the Javanese”

10. In your culture do you think a puppet tradition could have the same impact on its audience as it did in Java in the eleventh century?

11. Why did the Javanese consider Wayang Kulit such an important tradition? Do you think that is still true today from what you have read?

12. On page 99 the author discusses the role Wayang Kulit still plays in the Java. Which of these do you consider to be the most unique and why?

13. Do the Javanese still believe in the traditions supporting the Wayang Kulit theatre form? Demonstrate an example of your answer from the text itself.

14. What does the term ‘satria’ refer to in the context of this article? Why do you think this is significant?

15. Is the character ‘Durna’ from the Mahabharata the same or different to the character in the Indian version of the story? Demonstrate this by finding an example in the text.

16. On page 109 what is the function of the penawakan described as being?

17. How is ‘allah’ (Islamic Godhead) represented in Wayang reality?

18. Demonstrate in the article a description of ways Wayang Kulit metaphors are used to explain contemporary issues.